The Magars and Their Cosmology

 "Source: https://www.thewondernepal.com/articles/the-forgotten-fire-reviving-the-magar-community/"

 Introduction

Deep in the hills of central and western Nepal, where the forests thicken and old stones hum beneath moss and pine needles, there lies a sacred tradition nearly extinguished by time—the shamanic rites of the Magar people. Long before temples of brick or cities of stone, the Magars lit fires in forest clearings, whispered invocations to the ancestors, and summoned spirits through smoke and drumbeats. These rites—of healing, remembrance, and communion—were once the cornerstone of Magar spiritual life.

Today, the fire is fading. The dhami, jhankri, and bijuwa—once revered for their powers to traverse the spirit world and maintain cosmic balance—are few in number, their chants unrecorded, their rituals misunderstood or dismissed as superstition. Yet in the shadows of forgotten shrines and in the memory of the hills, something still stirs. The embers of Magar shamanic practice are not entirely cold. This article seeks to rediscover the ancient fire, to understand the rites that once bound the Magars to their land, ancestors, and unseen world—and to explore the fragile efforts being made today to keep this legacy alive.

 

The Magars and Their Cosmology

The Magars are one of Nepal’s oldest indigenous ethnic groups, believed to have inhabited the mid-hills and lower Himalayan zones long before Indo-Aryan and Tibetan migrations. Today, they form one of the largest Janajati populations in the country, spread across districts like Palpa, Rolpa, Rukum, Gulmi, Baglung, Myagdi, and Pyuthan.

Traditionally animistic and shamanic, the Magars believe in a layered universe inhabited by humans, nature spirits, ancestral souls, and gods. These realms interact constantly, and any disruption—be it illness, crop failure, or misfortune—is interpreted as spiritual imbalance. It is the task of the dhami (spirit-medium) and bijuwa (ancestral priest) to restore that balance.

Unlike codified religions, Magar shamanic practice was fluid, local, and oral. Rituals varied from village to village, lineage to lineage. But common to all was the central role of the sacred fire and smoke—the mediums through which ancestors were called, spirits fed, and diseases exorcised.

 

Fire and Smoke: The Sacred Medium

Among the Magars, fire was more than physical warmth—it was a portal. The hearth was a shrine, the smoke a message. Ritual fires (aggini) were lit with specific woods: uttis (alder), salla (pine), and paiyun (wild cherry), each chosen for its spiritual resonance. The smoke that rose from offerings—grains, rice, ghee, meat, and sacred herbs like titepati (Artemisia)—was believed to nourish ancestors and carry prayers to the unseen.

This smoke served several sacred functions:

• Purification: Homes, bodies, and ritual grounds were cleansed with wafting smoke.
   
• Invocation: Spirits were summoned through the fire’s breath—spoken names sent skyward.
   
• Protection: Smoke marked sacred boundaries during healing or trance rites.
   
• Possession and Speech: In trance, a dhami would inhale the smoke and become the voice of an ancestor or deity.
   

The fire was always circled anti-clockwise, symbolizing a return to origin. When performing the kul puja—ancestral rites—the bijuwa would carefully trace the family lineage, name the spirits, and offer cooked rice and raksi (homemade liquor) into the flames. In this moment, the dead were present, fed, and honored.

 

The Shamans: Dhami, Jhankri, and Bijuwa

Shamanic roles in Magar society were varied, each with specific powers and responsibilities.

Dhami

• Often entered trance states to communicate with deities or spirits.
   
• Diagnosed causes of illness or misfortune by observing animal behavior or dreams.
   
• Conducted seasonal rites to ensure harmony between village and nature.
   

Jhankri

• A healer and spiritual warrior.
   
• Used ritual instruments like the dhyangro (frame drum), bells, and feathered headgear.
   
• Fought off evil spirits (bhut, bokshi, or kecchari) that afflicted individuals or livestock.
   

Bijuwa

• Specialized in ancestral rites.
   
• Maintained oral genealogies and ritual calendars.
   
• Officiated kul pujas, death rituals, and life-cycle ceremonies.
   

These roles were often hereditary, passed from father to son or uncle to nephew. Initiation involved dreams, illness, visions in the forest, or direct possession—signs that a spirit had chosen the individual for this sacred work.

 

Ancestral Rites: The Kul Puja and Beyond

Central to Magar spirituality is the belief that ancestors do not disappear—they remain close, watching, guiding, and, if neglected, punishing. Honoring them is both a duty and a necessity.

Kul Puja (Clan Ancestor Worship)

• Performed annually or during major transitions: births, marriages, house construction.
   
• Involves offerings of boiled rice, eggs, raksi, chicken, and sometimes blood sacrifices.
   
• Names of deceased ancestors are recited in precise order to invite their presence.
   
• Fire and smoke are used to “open the way” and serve the meal to the dead.
   

Failure to conduct kul puja was believed to invite misfortune—illness, accidents, and spiritual restlessness.

Death and Rebirth

• Death was not the end but a journey through pachhyo lok—the afterworld.
   
• The bijuwa helped guide the soul through rituals like pitri karma and panche batti (five lamp ceremony).
   
• Rebirth was both feared and celebrated; sometimes, infants were named after deceased kin believed to have returned.
   

 

The Drumbeat and the Trance

The heart of many Magar shamanic rites is the dhyangro, a frame drum struck in rhythmic patterns to summon spirits or induce trance. Each beat was a step into the invisible. The jhankri would begin slow, eyes fixed on the fire. As the beat quickened and incense thickened, the world around would blur. When the spirit entered, the jhankri’s voice would change, face contort, and movements shift into a divine presence.

In trance, the jhankri might:

• Diagnose illnesses caused by spirit possession.
   
• Identify curses or witchcraft.
   
• Retrieve lost soul fragments (la) of the afflicted.
   
• Recite myths or chants as the voice of gods or ancestors.
   

Witnesses often wept, trembled, or joined in ecstatic song. For them, this was not performance but divine encounter—a moment when the world opened.

 

Sacred Landscapes and Spirit Geography

For the Magars, certain places were charged with spirit energy—natural temples of power. These included:

• Forest Clearings (ban khel): Where initiations and healing rites were conducted.
   
• Hilltop Shrines (deurali): Offerings made before travel or harvesting.
   
• Waterfalls and Springs (jhari, mul): Home to jhyangri spirits—some benevolent, others dangerous.
   
• Old Trees (bar, pipal, chilaune): Believed to house ancestral or guardian spirits.
   

These places were maintained with respect. To build near them, cut trees, or bathe during certain lunar phases was forbidden without permission from a dhami or bijuwa. With modernization, many of these places are now roadsides or farmland. The spirits remain, but few remember how to speak with them.

 

Decline and Disappearance

The decline of Magar shamanic rites has been rapid in recent decades, driven by multiple factors:

Conversion and Religious Pressure

• Christian missionary activity in hill districts has led many Magar families to abandon ancestral rituals.
   
• New faiths discourage what they consider “idol worship” or “witchcraft.”
   

Modern Education and Migration

• Children grow up in boarding schools or cities, disconnected from their village traditions.
   
• Young Magars increasingly see dhami-jhankri practices as backward or shameful.
   

Loss of Ritual Knowledge

• Oral transmission has broken down. Chants are forgotten, lineage trees incomplete.
   
• Many elders died during the Maoist conflict without passing on knowledge.
   

Tourism and Misrepresentation

• Some shamans are hired to “perform” rituals for trekkers—diluting the sacred into spectacle.
   
• Authentic practices are confused with stereotyped Himalayan shamanism or Tibetan Tantric displays.
  

Between Worlds: The Vanishing Trance Rituals of Dhami-Jhankri Shamans

"SOURCE:  https://thewondernepal.com/articles/between-worlds-the-vanishing-trance-rituals-of-dhami-jhankri-shamans/"

Between Worlds: The Vanishing Trance Rituals of Dhami-Jhankri Shamans

In the dimly lit hearths of Nepal’s highlands, where stories still swirl with the smoke from firewood and prayer flags flutter in the mountain wind, there exists an ancient practice of crossing realms. The Dhami-Jhankri—Nepal’s indigenous shamans—have long served as spiritual bridges between the seen and the unseen, the living and the dead, the tangible and the mystical. Their trance rituals, once common throughout rural Nepal, are vanishing into memory. In today’s Nepal of smartphones and concrete cities, the old rhythms of the drum that summoned gods, spirits, and ancestral powers are fading—lost in silence.

Shamans of the Himalayas: Who Are the Dhami and Jhankri?

To understand the vanishing of these trance rituals, one must begin with the shamans themselves. The terms Dhami and Jhankri are often used interchangeably but bear subtle regional and functional distinctions. "Jhankri" is most commonly used in the hill regions and implies a shaman who enters altered states through drumming, chanting, and dancing. "Dhami" often implies a medium who becomes possessed or speaks on behalf of a spirit or deity, often in a more controlled ritual setting. Both roles blur the lines between healer, priest, oracle, and exorcist.

These figures are not trained in schools or temples. Their journeys begin with visions, dreams, or illness—what anthropologists term "shamanic illness"—a period of intense physical and psychological distress that is interpreted as a calling from the spirit world. Often a mentor shaman then guides the initiate through apprenticeship, teaching them ritual chants, cosmology, herbs, and the complex dance between the physical and spiritual worlds.

Entering the Trance: The Ritual Mechanics

A trance ritual typically begins with the beat of the dhyangro, a double-sided frame drum believed to summon and communicate with spirits. As the drumbeat intensifies, the Jhankri begins to chant mantras in esoteric languages—part Sanskrit, part local dialects, part spiritual tongue unintelligible to outsiders. As the rhythm deepens, the shaman’s body begins to shake. Their eyes may roll back, their voice might change. At a certain point, it is believed that a deity or spirit enters their body.

In some communities, the Jhankri dances around a ritual fire, often entering trance in front of the entire village. In others, the Dhami remains seated in a trance state, issuing oracles or instructions given by the deity possessing them. These sessions may address a range of issues—illness, bad harvests, ancestral disturbances, unseen forces, or spirit possession. Through trance, the shaman negotiates with these forces, offering sacrifices, chanting remedial mantras, or conducting rituals to restore balance.

Cosmology and the Spirit World

The Dhami-Jhankri worldview does not distinguish sharply between natural and supernatural. Mountains, rivers, forests, and rocks are all animated with spirit life. Illness, mental disturbance, or misfortune is often attributed to imbalances or disturbances in this spiritual ecosystem. The role of the shaman, then, is that of a mediator—someone who communicates with these forces and restores cosmic harmony.

Their trance is not mere performance. It is a religious and communal event, where boundaries between the self and other dissolve. The Jhankri is not merely pretending to be possessed—they are believed to truly embody the spirit of a god, an ancestor, or a natural force. For the communities that rely on these rituals, this transformation is not metaphor—it is fact.

Regional Variations Across Nepal

Trance rituals vary across Nepal’s ethnic tapestry. Among the Rai and Limbu communities of eastern Nepal, the Mundhum tradition provides a vast oral cosmology that underpins their shamanic practices. Their shamans, known as Nakchhong or Mangpa, invoke spirits of ancestors and nature in elaborate rituals that involve chanting of mythic narratives. Among the Tamang and Sherpa, the Bompo shamans blend Buddhist and animist elements, and often use trance to ward off spirits known as “gdon.”

In western Nepal, Dhamis act as mediums for powerful deities known as Kul Devta or village guardians. In possession rituals, Dhamis may take on the voice and personality of a particular deity, delivering prophecies or healing commands. In the hills of Rolpa and Rukum, trance ceremonies often coincide with seasonal cycles, involving community feasts and animal sacrifices.

From Healing to Performance: Trance as Cultural Theatre

In the past, trance rituals were intimate, practical, and woven into everyday life. If a child had a fever, a Jhankri might be called instead of a doctor. If crops failed, the community might sponsor a trance ritual to appease the local deity. But as biomedical care and modern infrastructure spread, the functional role of shamans has diminished. In many villages today, trance rituals are retained more as ceremonial performances—staged during festivals or tourism events rather than as integral aspects of daily life.

This shift transforms the shaman’s role from healer to performer. The trance, once terrifying in its rawness, becomes stylized. Chants are shortened. Drums are played for effect. The gods may still arrive, but their voices are now scripted.

Colonial and Religious Pressures

The decline of trance rituals has deeper roots, too. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Christian missionaries and state modernization efforts often labeled shamanic practices as "superstition." Schools discouraged indigenous rituals. Christian and Hindu reformers both attacked Dhami-Jhankri traditions as backward. In regions like the eastern hills, conversion to Christianity has further accelerated the decline of trance practices, especially among younger generations who are taught to see them as incompatible with their new faith.

Even in largely Hindu communities, state-endorsed temple priesthoods have often marginalized local trance healers. The introduction of formalized religion eroded the status of indigenous shamans who once served as spiritual leaders in their villages.

Modernity and the Fragmenting of Ritual Life

Perhaps the most potent force eroding trance rituals is not religion or science—but fragmentation. Modernity breaks the collective rhythms of rural life. Migration scatters families across cities and countries. Youth are educated in systems that ignore or ridicule ancestral knowledge. The communal spaces once used for trance rituals—village squares, shared forests, ritual houses—are now privatized or urbanized.

With each generation, fewer young people learn the old chants or drum rhythms. Those who do are often pressured to abandon them for more “respectable” careers. Some shamans quietly continue their work, but many have stopped performing in public altogether. In urban areas, trance rituals are either hidden or turned into folklore.

Voices from the Mountains: What the Elders Say

In the hills of Bhojpur, an elderly Jhankri named Purna Maya Rai speaks of dreams that once guided her. “When I was fourteen, the river called me,” she says. “I became sick. No healer could cure me. Then my grandfather appeared in a dream and gave me a mantra. When I woke up, I knew I had to drum.” She has performed hundreds of healing ceremonies since—but now, none of her children want to learn. “They say it is nonsense. They want to go abroad.”

In Kaski, an old Dhami recalls the days when villagers gathered in the courtyard to watch him enter trance and channel the goddess Bhagwati. “She used to speak through me,” he says. “Now they go to hospitals or YouTube.”

These voices echo across Nepal: a chorus of loss, of knowledge not being passed on, of power fading.

Digital Preservation and Ethical Dilemmas

In recent years, filmmakers, anthropologists, and spiritual seekers have attempted to document trance rituals before they disappear completely. YouTube is now filled with footage of Dhami-Jhankri ceremonies. Academic theses have been written. Festivals in Kathmandu showcase stylized versions of trance dances. Yet this preservation raises questions—does recording a trance ritual strip it of its sacredness? Can a trance, meant to be lived and embodied, survive as video?

Some elders resist documentation altogether, arguing that the spirits do not like cameras. Others welcome the interest, hoping it will revive respect for the practice. But digitization cannot substitute for participation. Ritual is not just information—it is experience.

Reimagining Continuity: What Can Be Saved?

The vanishing of trance rituals is not inevitable. In some communities, revival is underway. In Sankhuwasabha, youth groups have begun organizing apprenticeship programs for local shamans. In Lamjung, a women’s collective funds healing ceremonies and educates villagers about their ritual significance. In Dolakha, Buddhist shamans blend trance with mindfulness, offering spiritual counseling adapted for modern life.

These reimaginings do not aim to freeze the tradition but to evolve it. They ask: can the gods still speak in a changing world? Can the Jhankri still dance, even if the rhythms are different?

The answer lies not in nostalgia but in recognition. If trance rituals are to survive, they must be acknowledged not as primitive relics but as profound cultural technologies—ways of processing grief, maintaining social cohesion, and affirming human connection to land and spirit.

Conclusion: Listening Between the Worlds

Between the waking world and the unseen lies a space few dare to enter. The Dhami-Jhankri have long walked this threshold, risking madness, bearing suffering, and channeling the voices of gods and ghosts for the sake of their people. As they fade, so too does a way of being that honored dream, intuition, and mystery.

Nepal is changing, but its mountains still echo with drumbeats. Somewhere, in a remote village, a child may still dream of water spirits and wake with a chant on their lips. It is not too late. But saving this tradition requires more than documentation—it demands listening, believing, and returning to the spaces between worlds.

Let us not allow those doors to close.

 

Gods in Hiding: The Lost Deity Worship Traditions of Masta and Kul Devtas

 

SOURCE: https://thewondernepal.com/articles/gods-in-hiding-the-lost-deity-worship-traditions-of-masta-and-kul-devtas/

"Introduction

High in the hills of western Nepal, in the mist-shrouded valleys of Achham, Bajura, Doti, and other remote regions, gods once walked among the people. They were not distant celestial beings but powerful household and village guardians—Masta, Kul Devtas, and a myriad of local deities—worshipped through oral prayers, sacred groves, and trance rituals. These gods, unique to families, clans, and villages, embodied the land, the ancestors, and the very spirit of communal identity.

Yet, as Nepal rushes toward urbanization, digitization, and homogenized religion, these localized spiritual practices are vanishing. Sacred forests are cleared, rituals forgotten, and spirit mediums silenced. The ancient faith systems once central to life in the hills are now hidden—replaced by formalized Hinduism or ignored altogether.

This article explores the endangered traditions of Masta and Kul Devta worship in western Nepal, their roots, roles, and rituals, and the reasons for their rapid decline. It also asks: can these divine threads be rewoven into Nepal’s modern spiritual fabric?

Who Are the Masta and Kul Devtas?

The Masta are local deities primarily worshipped in Nepal’s far-western hills. Each Masta has its own area of influence—some are worshipped in one valley, others by entire districts. These deities are neither part of the mainstream Hindu pantheon nor Buddhist lineage but are instead animistic and ancestral, often associated with natural features, clan identity, and sacred geography.

Kul Devtas, on the other hand, are ancestral household gods worshipped by specific clans or extended families. They act as protectors, mediators of fortune, and recipients of intergenerational devotion. Though some Kul Devtas have been assimilated into broader Hinduism over time, many remain distinctly non-scriptural and ritual-specific, known only to the families who worship them.

In both cases, these deities are experienced and worshipped through oral tradition, shamanic possession, and seasonal rituals rather than texts or temples.

Ritual Practices and Sacred Geography

Worship of Masta and Kul Devtas typically takes place in sacred groves (ban mandir), ancestral courtyards, or open hilltops—locations believed to be spiritual thresholds between the human and divine realms.

In a typical Masta ritual, the following elements are observed:

• A Jhankri (shaman) or Deureni (spirit medium) invokes the deity through music, drumming, and trance.
   
• Offerings include local alcohol, flowers, goat sacrifice, and Dhami Jhankri chants.
   
• The deity is believed to enter the body of the medium, who then speaks on the deity’s behalf—blessing, diagnosing illness, or warning the village.
   

Kul Devta rituals, often held during Dashain, Maghe Sankranti, or ancestral feast days, involve:

• The entire family gathering for puja at the ancestral hearth or courtyard.
   
• Invocations that recall seven generations of ancestors.
   
• Ritual offerings of rice, tika, jamara, incense, and occasionally blood sacrifices.
   
• Oral recitations passed down, often in endangered local dialects.
   

Regional Examples of Masta Worship

1. Achham and Bajura: The Heartland of Masta

In Achham, nearly every village has its own Masta Ghar (god house). Some of the widely known deities include:

• Jay Masta of Ramaroshan
   
• Badi Masta of Mangalsen
   
• Sitaula Masta, Hingal Masta, and others, each with their own legends, behaviors, and preferences
   

These gods are believed to punish villagers if neglected, causing illness, drought, or livestock death. Thus, their worship is not only devotional—it is essential to village wellbeing.

2. Doti and Dadeldhura: Lineage of Kul Devtas

Many Brahmin, Chhetri, and Thakuri families in Doti trace their Kul Devtas back centuries. These deities are linked to their Thars (clan surnames) and often believed to reside in ancestral hills or sacred stones.

Each family has a unique set of rituals—kept secret and passed down orally, usually from father to eldest son. Some use a living tree, a shila (stone), or even a buried weapon as the deity’s resting place.

Decline of Local Deity Worship

The decline of Masta and Kul Devta worship is not an isolated phenomenon—it reflects larger patterns of religious, social, and environmental change in Nepal.

1. Migration and Diaspora

As young people move to Kathmandu, Gulf countries, or beyond for work, fewer remain in villages to carry out elaborate seasonal rituals. Children born in cities may never witness a Masta possession ceremony or know the name of their family’s Kul Devta.

2. Religious Homogenization

The rise of formalized Brahmanical Hinduism—along with the spread of Christian missionary and Buddhist revivalist movements—has marginalized non-scriptural local practices. In many cases, villagers have been told their traditional gods are “lower” or “superstitious.”

3. Environmental Degradation

Urban expansion, road construction, and deforestation have destroyed sacred forests and natural sites tied to deity worship. In Bajura, many Masta groves have been turned into pasture or cleared for buildings.

4. Loss of Oral Transmission

With elders passing away and younger generations disconnected, the oral chants, prayers, and genealogies tied to deity worship are vanishing. Unlike written scriptures, these traditions are not archived—and once lost, cannot be easily recovered.

The Social Role of Masta and Kul Devtas

Worship of these deities once served key social functions:

• Community Cohesion: Rituals brought entire villages together—regardless of caste or wealth.
   
• Health and Healing: Spirit mediums diagnosed mental and physical illnesses linked to supernatural causes.
   
• Moral Regulation: Fear of divine punishment encouraged ethical behavior and respect for elders and nature.
   
• Cultural Identity: In a diverse landscape, local deities anchored identity in geography and lineage.
   

With their decline, these social roles often go unfulfilled or are replaced by more commercialized, fragmented, or externalized systems.

Myth, Legend, and the Living Divine

Masta and Kul Devta traditions are rich in mythological lore. Many stories involve:

• A god appearing in a dream to an ancestor, asking to be worshipped.
   
• A divine snake, tiger, or bird leading the founder to a sacred site.
   
• A battle between village gods, leading to annual appeasement ceremonies.
   
• Oral genealogies tracing clans to semi-divine ancestors, kept alive through ritual recitation.
   

These myths are more than stories—they define territory, ritual calendars, and moral codes. The gods, in this worldview, are not above life but interwoven into it.

Revival and Preservation Efforts

Despite rapid decline, some communities and scholars are taking action to preserve these traditions:

1. Community Festivals

Villages in Bajura and Doti have begun reviving local festivals with help from youth groups and municipal governments. These festivals reintroduce music, dance, and rituals to younger generations.

2. Ethnographic Documentation

Researchers are recording oral chants, ritual practices, and genealogies in partnership with shamans and elders. Projects often include video archives, audio recordings, and publications in native languages.

3. Eco-Spiritual Protection

Sacred groves once protected by belief in local deities are now being preserved under environmental laws—acknowledging their dual ecological and spiritual significance.

4. Education in Schools

Some schools in rural areas are beginning to include lessons about local history and indigenous belief systems, helping children take pride in their own heritage.

The Urgency of Recognition

Without state recognition, Masta and Kul Devta traditions risk permanent disappearance. Nepal's focus on protecting temples and mainstream festivals has often ignored these invisible, oral, and land-bound forms of worship.

The following steps can help:

• Legal recognition of oral traditions as cultural heritage
   
• Preservation of sacred sites and groves
   
• Support for intergenerational transmission of rituals
   
• Respectful inclusion of local deities in national narratives—not as “superstition,” but as indigenous cosmology
   

Conclusion

The gods of Nepal’s hills are hiding—but not gone. They still whisper through the wind in the forests of Achham, stir in the stone shrines of Doti, and call through the dreams of aging shamans.

Masta and Kul Devta worship may not be found in temples or scriptures, but they embody the heartbeat of ancestral Nepal—a spiritual system where land, lineage, and life were indivisible. Their loss is not just a spiritual erosion—it is a cultural amnesia, a silencing of voices that once guided people through every birth, illness, harvest, and death.

To remember them, and to restore their place, is to reclaim a Nepal rooted in the land, not just the calendar—where the gods are still alive, waiting to be welcomed home."

The mysterious world of Nepal’s shamans

Took this excellent article from www.nepalitimes.com

SOURCE: https://www.nepalitimes.com/opinion/the-mysterious-world-of-nepal-s-shamans

Written By: Tshewang Lama and Nabraj Lama

 In the remote trans-Himalayan district of Humla across the border from the sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet, the cult of the Dhami and Dangri still acts as a go between the physical human form and its spiritual divine manifestation.

They are derivatives of shamanism and reflect the diverse social fabric of the Himalaya, and have its roots in socio-religious antecedents of the region’s present day inhabitants that predates the arrival of institutionalised religions.

The remnants of this shamanistic cult can still be found on both sides of the border in the upper Karnali Basin in Nepal and the sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash in China. Passed down through generations, the Dhami and Dangri institution is deeply ingrained in Nepali culture, especially in the hard-to-reach Himalayan regions like Humla.

The institution of Dhami, the oracle shaman, is believed to be established through 'Avatarilo' (by incarnation), while the Dangri institution is established through 'Bangsyalo' (by heredity). When a reigning Dhami passes away, the knowledge and abilities of the Dhami is passed on to another person through a spirit transfer. The Dangri, meanwhile, imparts their expertise and knowledge within close clan members through teaching.

The Dhami serves as the medium for communication with the divine, while the Dangri is the spiritual helper and mediator between humans and the Dhami.

The spirit of the Dhami can move to any person, but the receiver must accept it. If a suitable receiver is not found, it is believed that the spirit waits for the right person, sometimes temporarily entering the body of the Dangri.

The Dangri also acts as the community's oral record keeper, passing on information exclusively to close family members. The Dangri provides all information to the Dhami, invites the God spirit, translates the language, and most importantly, updates and maintains the oral record of important events.

There are two contrasting world views when it comes to fulfilling one's desires, the old way, relying on divine power, and the new way, relying on state power. The old world view is followed by indigenous people living in peripheral regions of the Himalaya who rely on religion and magic. They are governed by divine power through faith and fear.

The new world view is prevalent in mainstream society, where so-called civilised people reside. They depend on state power, science, technology, and the rule of law to meet their needs.

The Dhami and Dangri institution plays a variety of roles in the daily lives of Nepalis in the high mountains. The Dhami is responsible for providing consultation, horoscope reading, fortune-telling, advice, wish fulfillment, health healing, conflict resolution, judgment, and socio-religious leadership. The Dhami demonstrates his authenticity through 'Sat' (spiritual perfection in fulfilling commitments) and 'Bidh' (exhibition of extraordinary miracle power). People value the 'sat', which represents their demand, but the power of 'bidh' is shown to validate his power of 'sat'.

The institution of Dhami and Dangri is mutually inclusive and begins with the Dangri inviting the spirit of a deity into the Dhami's body through prayers and offerings. The Dangri initiates the ritual by inviting the god from Heaven to the 'Kang-Tsho' (the fulcrum of the Himalaya). From there, the God descends through each Himalayan eco-zone (alpine, sub-alpine, temperate, sub-tropical, tropical, and the aquatic layer), symbolically mounting on the creatures of every layer. By doing this, the God is expected to grant wishes and prosperity to devotees.

Once the God arrives at the shrine site, the Dangri requests it to enter the Dhami's body to induce a trance. In this state, the Dhami is believed to become a divine being, unaware of their normal human life. Devotees can then ask questions to the Dhami through the interpretation of his Dangri.

The Dhami, in a trance, acts as a surrogate for God and responds to queries and communicates divine language called 'akhar', which is only understood by his Dangri. The lay devotees can understand it only through the Dangri's interpretation.

During the ritual, the Dangri makes specific requests to the God, asking for and fulfillment of desires. The God is asked to transform each place into valuable items like gold, conch, or turquoise, radiating vibrant colours. While the deity's journey takes place, male retinues are requested to accompany it on the right side and females on the left.

The desires of the indigenous people living in mountainous communities are often centered around basic needs: bridges over raging rivers, protection from rock falls along trails, a balance between sun and rain, restoring water to dried streams, adequate grass for livestock in the upland meadows, good harvests, children for couples struggling with infertility, opportunities for the young, longevity for the elderly, and nourishing food and sleep for those in need.

As modern lifestyles encroach even to the remotest high valleys of the Himalaya traditional institutions like Dhami and Dangri are in danger of disappearing. But their resilience in the face of modernisation is a testament to their continued importance in the everyday lives of the people of far-flung parts of Nepal. It still plays a vital role in enforcing communal law, guiding human behaviour, and preserving cultural and religious practices.

Tshewang Lama (Chhakka Bahadur Lama) is a Lama-turned-academic, hailing from Humla. He is a former MP from Humla and is currently the President of the Institute for Socio-Cultural Research and Analysis (SCRAnalysis).

Nabraj Lama is a research scholar and his work focuses on geopolitics, indigenism, international affairs. mail@nabrajlama.com